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Result list

• VCHHK159

  Changing social, cultural, historical, economic, environmental, political and technological conditions on a major global influence in Australia

  Elaborations

  • Popular culture
    • identifying American and Asian influences on Australian popular culture since World War II, for example, through mainstream and Hollywood and Bollywood films
    • investigating the changing contribution of the Australian rock ’n’ roll, film and television industries to Australian culture and identity through the development and export of music, film and television, for example, the Easybeats from Sydney, the Go-Betweens from Brisbane and ‘Crocodile Dundee’ (1986)
    • describing significant examples of continuity and change in beliefs and values, such as democratic ideals, religious beliefs, egalitarianism
  • Environment movement
    • recognising the historic impact of the pictures of Earth taken during the Apollo 8 mission and how they influenced people’s view of the world
    • explaining the significance of ideas about the environment, for example, Gaia, the limits of growth, sustainability and rights of nature
    • investigating a range of environmental effects, for example, the flooding of Lake Pedder in Tasmania, deforestation in Indonesia, the decline of the Aral Sea, the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the whaling industry
    • explaining the struggle over French nuclear weapon testing in the Pacific from 1966–1996, for example, the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior in 1985
    • evaluating the effectiveness of international protocols and treaties such as Kyoto (1997), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (since 1992) and the Washington Declaration (2007)
  • Migration experiences
    • describing the impact of the Vietnam war on Vietnam and how the communist victory in Vietnam (1975) resulted in the arrival of refugees into Australia
    • investigating policies of multiculturalism since the 1970s and the concepts of cultural heritage and assimilation
    • analysing post-World War II population growth and the development of Australia’s culturally diverse society using different types of graphs
  • Political Crisis
    • identifying and evaluating the changes to Australia as a result of the political crisis
    • using a chart or graphic organiser to categorise the changes to Australia

  VCHHK159 | The Humanities | History | Levels 9 and 10 | Historical Knowledge | The modern world and Australia | The globalising world

• VCHHK131

  Different experiences and perspectives of individuals or groups and how ideas, beliefs and values changed during the significant events of the Industrial Revolution

  Elaborations

  • describing the effects of steam, gas and electricity on people’s way of life during the Industrial Revolution
  • investigating the changes in working conditions, for example, longer working hours for low pay and the use of children as a cheap source of labour
  • investigating the support for Chartism among the poorer classes as a response to deteriorating living and working conditions
  • explaining how religious groups responded to the ideas in Charles Darwin’s 1859 book On the Origin of Species
  • investigating sources that record the reactions of new arrivals to other countries in this period, for example, responses to the natural environment and climate

  VCHHK131 | The Humanities | History | Levels 9 and 10 | Historical Knowledge | The making of the modern world | Industrial Revolution (1750 – 1914)

• VCHHK136

  Patterns of continuity and change and their effects on influencing movements of people, ways of life and living conditions, political and legal institutions, and cultural expression around the turn of the twentieth century

  Elaborations

  • Australia
    • using sources to examine the living and working conditions in Australia around the turn of the twentieth century (that is 1900)
    • identifying the main features of housing, sanitation, transport, education and industry that influenced living and working conditions in Australia
    • describing the impact of the gold rushes in the hinterland on the development of ‘Marvellous Melbourne’
  • Asia
    • describing the British Raj and the forms of British influence in India, for example, the building of roads, an extensive railway network, schools and Christian missions
    • describing how increasing foreign influence and imperialism was challenging and changing Imperial China and society through trade, railway networks, missionaries, foreign concessions in cities such as Shanghai
    • describing how increasing trade, modernisation expansions and nationalism in Japan were influencing change to everyday life in Japan, the fall of the Shogun and the Meiji Restoration

  VCHHK136 | The Humanities | History | Levels 9 and 10 | Historical Knowledge | The making of the modern world | Australia and Asia

• VCHHK129

  Causes that led to the Industrial Revolution, and other conditions and ideas that influenced the industrialisation of Britain and of Australia

  Elaborations

  • explaining why the agricultural revolution including access to raw materials, wealthy middle class, cheap labour, transport system, and expanding empire caused the Industrial Revolution
  • mapping the British Empire c.1800 CE and the raw materials it obtained from colonies, for example, sugar from Jamaica, wool from Australia, and cotton from India
  • explaining changes in technology, for example steam-driven spinning mills, railways and steam ships, which led to factories and cities
  • identifying the spread of innovations such as steam power, iron and steel production, transport; and chemicals in Europe, USA and Japan

  VCHHK129 | The Humanities | History | Levels 9 and 10 | Historical Knowledge | The making of the modern world | Industrial Revolution (1750 – 1914)

• VCHHK130

  Causes of population movements and settlement patterns during this period and the significant changes to the way of life of groups of people

  Elaborations

  • describing the growth of cities as men, women and children moved to the cities to find employment
  • using photographs to investigate changes to the cities and landscape in European countries and Australia as the Industrial Revolution continued to develop
  • mapping the movement of peoples in the transatlantic slave trade or in convict transportation to Australia
  • explaining the role of the Industrial Revolution in creating a growing need for labour and transportation
  • evaluating the effects of the movement of peoples on the indigenous and immigrant populations

  VCHHK130 | The Humanities | History | Levels 9 and 10 | Historical Knowledge | The making of the modern world | Industrial Revolution (1750 – 1914)

• VCHHK138

  Position of the society in relation to other nations in the world by 1918 including the effects of ideas and movements of people

  Elaborations

  • Australia
    • investigating the type of society in Australia ‘Working Man’s Paradise’, ‘Social Laboratory’
    • investigating how the major social legislation of the new Federal Government affected living and working conditions in Australia, for example Legislation 1901–1914, including the Harvester Judgment, Immigration Restriction Act, invalid and old-age pensions and the maternity allowance scheme, Defence Acts
  • Asia
    • analysing the causes of collapse of the Qing and the 1911 Revolution. Discuss reasons why there was increasing demand for Indian independence and self-government and the founding of the Indian Congress Party
    • investigating Japan’s increased expansion into China, the signing of the ‘Twenty-one Demands’ in 1915 and territorial gains as a result of the Treaty of Versailles

  VCHHK138 | The Humanities | History | Levels 9 and 10 | Historical Knowledge | The making of the modern world | Australia and Asia

• VCHHK158

  Causes and developments of the major global influences on Australia

  Elaborations

  • Popular culture
    • analysing the causes and conditions for cultural development and the effects on Australian society
    • investigating America’s cultural influence, as seen in the arrival of television for the Melbourne Olympics (1956) and Bill Haley’s Australian tour (1957)
    • comparing and contrasting views on the values and beliefs of rock ’n’ roll, film and television across time, age and gender, for example, issues of conservatism and rebellion, the challenge to established ideas and national identity
  • Environment movement
    • analysing the causes and conditions that led to the environment movement and its effects on changing public opinion and improving the environment
    • outlining the emergence of concerns about the preservation of natural areas for future generations, for example, as reflected in the establishment of National Parks in the United States (Yellowstone National Park in 1872), Australia (Royal National Park in 1879), Canada (Rocky Mountains National Park in 1885) and New Zealand (Tongariro National Park in 1887)
    • investigating the impact of early texts that warned about environmental change, for example, Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, 1962, Don’t It Make You Want To Go Home by Joe South, 1970, Mother Earth News magazine in 1970, Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology) lyrics by Marvin Gaye, 1971
  • Migration experiences
    • analysing the causes and conditions that led to increased migration to Australia and changing public opinion and government policy
    • describing the main features of a government policy that affected migration to Australia, such as the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 and use of the dictation test to restrict the immigration of non-Europeans
    • explaining the reasons for changes in government policy, for example the influence of White Australia ideology at the time of the introduction of the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, the Displaced Persons Scheme in the aftermath of World War II
  • Political Crisis
    • analysing the causes of the Korean or Vietnam War and its effects on Australia
    • analysing the causes and effects of the Petrov Affair
    • evaluating the developments during the Whitlam government and the causes of the government’s dismissal

  VCHHK158 | The Humanities | History | Levels 9 and 10 | Historical Knowledge | The modern world and Australia | The globalising world

• VCHIC079

  Create imaginative or expressive texts that draw from and reflect elements of their own tastes and experience

  Elaborations

  • collaborating with peers to create dramatic or humorous representations of people, situations or events encountered in their own lives
  • creating riddles to compete with and entertain each other, imitating the use of meter, rhythm, rhyme and metaphor exemplified in riddles from Hindi literature and folklore
  • composing and performing poems or songs that incorporate elements of traditional or contemporary literary and musical forms and reflect their own experiences, for example, भक्ति or वीर गाथा verse, nonsense songs, raps
  • creating and performing texts that exaggerate characteristic elements of a selected genre for comic effect, such as a biased commentary on a sporting event
  • creating an imaginative text such as a diary entry or song lyric that expresses either positive or negative responses to the experience of living across different languages and cultures
  • creating an English-language commentary to an observed Hindi-language sitcom, discussing how to transfer or explain the humour or dramatic effects of the original text
  • using digital resources to create imaginary characters and situations associated with school or home contexts to entertain younger learners

  VCHIC079 | Languages | Hindi | F–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Creating

• VCHIC118

  Reflect on their own language choices and communicative behaviour when using Hindi or English, including adjustments they make between languages and strategies they adopt to support intercultural communication

  Elaborations

  • discussing differences they are conscious of when interacting in Hindi or English, for example, when expressing feelings such as anger or sadness or when talking about personal issues
  • reflecting on the importance of non-verbal elements of communication, such as hand gestures, head movements and facial expressions, and on how these are sometimes used to mean different things in different languages
  • identifying elements of successful interaction when communicating with speakers of different languages, for example, being responsive and flexible, picking up on cues that indicate misunderstanding, respecting different perspectives and traditions
  • identifying differences in the interpretation of conversational strategies such as the use of pauses or silence when speaking in Hindi as compared to English, for example, to signal disapproval, respect for an elder, waiting for consensus, reflection or waiting for the end of a turn
  • reporting on moments of intercultural miscommunication, discussing possible reasons why they happened, repair and recovery strategies and what they learnt from these experiences
  • reflecting on language choices they make when interacting with friends who also speak both Hindi and English, identifying instances when they move between languages for practical or cultural reasons

  VCHIC118 | Languages | Hindi | 7–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Reflecting

• VCHIC115

  Create individual and collaborative imaginative texts in a range of modes and formats to entertain, convey ideas, express emotions and explore the creativity of language

  Elaborations

  • using different modes of presentation such as skits or cartoons to develop storylines and characters that explore bicultural experiences, for example, responding to stereotypes, negotiating intergenerational relationships, expressing identity in different languages
  • adapting an existing resource such as a traditional story or fable such as दुष्यन्त और शकुन्तला की कहानी to suit a different kind of audience, for example, young people in today’s society
  • creating texts for specific age or interest groups, selecting appropriate vocabulary, structure and content for the intended audience, for example, युवाओं के लिए स्वास्थ्य जानकारी, जंगल बचाओ, प्रवासी भारतीयों के लिए जानकारी
  • creating texts that incorporate humorous and expressive language to entertain younger audiences, for example, puppet plays, short video clips or voki animations, selecting language and images that enhance the visual or listening experience
  • creating riddles to entertain each other, imitating the use of meter, rhythm, rhyme and metaphor exemplified in riddles from Hindi literature and folklore
  • creating an English-language commentary to an observed Hindi-language sitcom, discussing how to transfer or explain the humour or dramatic effects of the original text into English
  • using descriptive and evocative language to create an imagined scene or interaction between two characters designed to create a strong emotional response, such as fear, anticipation or amazement
  • designing, illustrating and captioning texts such as cartoons or photo-stories, using expressive and imaginative language to capture character and emotion
  • using digital resources to create imaginary characters and situations associated with school or home contexts to entertain younger learners
  • providing a live commentary of a dance performance, interpreting movements, commenting on the significance of costume and adornments and interpreting key messages conveyed through the performance

  VCHIC115 | Languages | Hindi | 7–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Creating

• VCHIC117

  Compose bilingual texts such as digital stories, comics, blogs or contributions to websites that capture the experience of ‘living between languages’

  Elaborations

  • creating texts such as blogs or posts on online forums that draw on their personal bilingual resources to explore the dynamic nature of intercultural experience
  • corresponding with young Hindi speakers in different contexts, using Hindi and English to describe and explain aspects of life in Australia
  • creating bilingual digital stories for younger learners that capture elements of their own experiences of using two languages and living in a multilingual society
  • creating glossaries in English to explain cultural references in contemporary Hindi texts that relate to trans-cultural experience
  • creating a bilingual virtual tour of the school for new or intending students, noticing which language is more appropriate for different elements of the presentation
  • creating bilingual texts such as leaflets or slogans to raise awareness of health or environmental issues among both language communities, for example, स्वच्छ भारत; छोटा परिवार - सुखी परिवार; बेटी बचाओ-बेटी पढ़ाओ

  VCHIC117 | Languages | Hindi | 7–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Translating

• VCHIC109

  Interact with peers and others in familiar and unfamiliar contexts to compare experiences and to express views on local and global issues, such as relationships, education and popular culture

  Elaborations

  • exchanging views and experiences in relation to issues of shared relevance in the global context, for example, पारिवारिक सम्बन्ध या सामाजिक मीडिया का उपयोग – डिजिटल दुनिया
  • contributing to in-class discussions of social attitudes, for example, to gender roles, public or private education, arranged or love marriages, using active listening skills, asking for and providing elaboration and expressing agreement or disagreement
  • developing narrative and descriptive skills by exchanging accounts of significant events or influences in their lives, for example, पिछले साल मैं अपने माता पिता के साथ राष्ट्रीय संग्रहालय देखने गया और वहाँ स्वदेशी कलाकृतिओं को देख कर बहुत प्रभावित हुआ l कल एक कवि सम्मेलन का सफल मंचन करने के लिए मेरी काफी सराहना की गई।
  • participating in online or face-to-face debates, providing evidence to support a position, challenging opposing views and using expressive language to encourage feedback or indicate agreement, for example, बड़े दुख की बात है, मुझे आप से सहानुभूति है। आप बिलकुल सही कह रहे हैं। मैं आप से बिल्कुल सहमत हूँ।
  • exchanging views with young Hindi speakers in other contexts on local or global issues that they see impacting on their current or future lives, for example, शिक्षा, सम्बन्ध, प्राकृतिक स्थिरता, मानवाधिकार
  • participating in informal conversations and more structured debates to share and compare attitudes to social and cultural issues, for example, युवाओं का स्वास्थ्य; पारिवारिक रिश्ते; संयुक्त परिवार या एकल परिवार; विवाह या प्रेम विवाह
  • discussing their responsibilities at home, school and in part-time work, comparing with those of young people living in India and other Hindi-speaking contexts and noting the relative importance of concepts such as परिवार, समुदाय और सहयोग

  VCHIC109 | Languages | Hindi | 7–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Socialising

• VCHIC073

  Use formal and informal registers to discuss and compare young people’s interests, behaviours and values across different cultural contexts

  Elaborations

  • interviewing each other and family members to compare views on cultural behaviours and values across different times and contexts, for example, तुम्हारे विचार में संयुक्त और एकल परिवार में से कौन सी पारिवारिक सरंचना आज के युग में ज़्यादा उपयुक्त है?
  • discussing responsibilities related to home, school and part-time work, comparing with those of young people living in India and other Hindi speaking contexts and noting the relative importance of concepts such as परिवार, समुदाय और सहयोग, for example, भारत में घर के कामकाज के लिए नौकर नौकरानियाँ होती हैं l ऑस्ट्रेलिया में रह रहे भारतीय बच्चे घर के कामों में अपने मातापिता का हाथ बँटाते हैंl
  • using formal and informal registers to discuss differences in language use between peers and adults at different social events, for example, क्या आप अगले सप्ताह शास्त्रीय संगीत का कार्यक्रम देखने जाना चाहेंगे? अपनी टीम को प्रोत्साहित करने के लिए तुम कल मैच देखने अवश्य आना l
  • participating in formal debates on social or educational issues with reference to Indian and Australian perspectives, values and frames of reference, for example, क्या विदेशी भाषा सीखना अनिवार्य होना चाहिए? क्या उच्चशिक्षा की प्राप्ति ही जीवन में सफलता की कुँजी है? क्या बालिग होने पर बच्चों को अपने माता पिता का घर छोड़ देना चाहिए?

  VCHIC073 | Languages | Hindi | F–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Socialising

• VCHIC082

  Reflect on the nature of bilingual/multilingual communication and experience

  Elaborations

  • exploring the concept of translanguage in relation to mediating thought, action and communication in situations that involve two or more languages
  • reflecting on how speakers of more than one language draw strategically on a wide range of linguistic and cultural resources to make meaning of experience and to communicate with others
  • considering whether thinking or communicating in one language rather than another affects the ways ideas or attitudes are understood or expressed
  • identifying benefits associated with bilingualism/multilingualism, drawing examples from their personal experience
  • comparing assumptions sometimes made when communicating with speakers of different languages, identifying instances when they consciously adjust how they communicate due to personal assumptions or attitudes
  • identifying cultural cues in intercultural interactions that signal variations in expectations, values or traditions that may complicate communication
  • monitoring their use of Hindi and English in different domains, for example, by keeping a record of when they use each language, for which language functions and in which contexts
  • considering how their language and interactional behaviour might be interpreted or responded to by people from different language backgrounds

  VCHIC082 | Languages | Hindi | F–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Reflecting

• VCHIC076

  Research, interpret and evaluate information presented from different perspectives in relation to youth-related interests, identifying how culture and context affect how information is presented

  Elaborations

  • identifying different perspectives on selected social issues featured on television, radio or online forums, using the material as stimulus for debates or presentations, for example, जनसँख्या; भेदभाव; बेरोज़गारी, वैश्वीकरण, मानव अधिकार
  • comparing information published in different media on topical issues or well-known personalities in order to demonstrate the relationship between texts and cultural contexts, for example, by analysing language used in commentaries on क्रिकेट or reflections on Bhagat Singh, Subhash Chandra Bose, Rabindranath Tagore
  • conducting face-to-face or online interviews or surveys with peers, family or community members to compare experiences such as migration to Australia, living ‘across’ cultures or relationships with technology
  • critically analysing texts such as blogs, letters or newspaper announcements, distinguishing between facts and opinions, and identifying author intent, for example, by reading and discussing letters by Jawahar Lal Nehru, पिता के पत्र पुत्री के नाम
  • comparing representations in texts such as advertisements for mobile phones, beauty products or fast food in Hindi and English, considering why particular language or images have been selected
  • listening to interviews with celebrities from fields such as entertainment, sport or politics, identifying expressions or cultural references that convey a sense of culture or context

  VCHIC076 | Languages | Hindi | F–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Communicating | Informing

• VCHIU125

  Identify key features of multilingual experience, referencing their own individual and community language practices

  Elaborations

  • explaining the influence of Hindi language and associated cultures on their ways of communicating in different situations, for example, by creating a glossary of Hindi words and expressions that they use when communicating in English and English words and expressions that they use when communicating in Hindi
  • considering the advantages of being bilingual or multicultural, the limitations of being monolingual, and the meaning of concepts such as intercultural competence and translanguaging
  • discussing the effects of using either Hindi or English on how they express feelings, debate ideas or construct arguments
  • reflecting on how they use different languages when communicating across different social contexts, and to what extent these choices signal or define social roles or relationships and provide additional resources for thinking and talking about ideas and experience
  • recognising that language use among bilingual and multilingual speakers varies according to ethnicity, age, profession or social status, and to the context of language use
  • reflecting on other people’s reactions to their use of Hindi and/or English, considering how perceptions of other people’s ways of communicating are shaped by cultural standpoints, experiences and perspectives
  • creating and comparing individual language profiles, explaining which languages or dialects they use in their family, social and community lives
  • reflecting on elements such as gestures, body language and the use of space or silence when they are using different languages to communicate

  VCHIU125 | Languages | Hindi | 7–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Understanding | Language variation and change

• VCHIU084

  Recognise regular and variable elements of spoken Hindi, such as social and regional variations in the pronunciation of diphthongs, or inconsistencies between Hindi pronunciation and spelling and variations from Sanskrit and Perso-Arabic conventions

  Elaborations

  • increasing control of regular and irregular elements of spoken and written Hindi, such as the influence of accents and expression on pronunciation and spelling, for example, the use of वो in spoken Hindi in place of वह in written Hindi
  • recognising ways in which genres of written literary Hindi may differ from everyday speech registers, for example, the use of Sanskrit words in official Hindi, with terms like विनिर्माण क्षेत्र for the manufacturing sector, demonstrating understanding of how such terms are written and spoken
  • understanding that the appreciation of film song lyrics and verse forms can be enhanced by understanding how compound words are formed in Arabic and Persian and used in Hindi, for example, in the film title मुग़ल- ए- आज़म
  • recognising the impermanent and fluid nature of spoken language and how it is influenced by local customs, cultures and regional languages, for example, the addition of honorifics such as sister, ताई, to women’s names by Marathi speakers and देवी to married women’s names by Biharis
  • identifying features of spoken language, such as the use of repetition, pauses, interruptions, incomplete sentences and non-verbal expression, which are not represented in written Hindi but are important elements of ‘live’ interactions
  • recognising and responding to challenges associated with clarity and pace in audio texts such as airport announcements or recorded phone messages

  VCHIU084 | Languages | Hindi | F–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Understanding | Systems of language

• VCHIU088

  Categorise observed changes to Hindi in domains of use such as education, media, popular culture and intercultural communication

  Elaborations

  • identifying changes in Hindi language forms and communicative styles in domains of use such as IT, diplomacy and commerce
  • classifying words and expressions from other languages that they use in different curriculum areas such as science, visual arts, economics, social studies
  • creating glossaries of terms that originated in other languages that they use in different areas of their own lives, for example, Persian सरकार, Arabic अदालत,Turkish क़ुली and Japanese रिक्शा
  • talking with older members of their families or communities about changes to Hindi across their lifetime, such as the blending of English and Hindi in language used in entertainment, news and sports commentary or advertising
  • analysing the language of the internet in terms of inter-language influences, for example, by identifying examples of Hindi words that have been adapted to accommodate concepts expressed in other languages

  VCHIU088 | Languages | Hindi | F–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Understanding | Language variation and change

• VCHIU089

  Explore how using different languages to make meaning affects how they and their peers think, behave and communicate

  Elaborations

  • reflecting on the relationship between their use of Hindi, English and other languages/dialects and their sense of identity
  • discussing whether ideas and values are expressed differently in different languages, for example, in relation to family relationships or peer group interests
  • reflecting on concepts such as global citizenship, national identity and intercultural communication, discussing the relationship between these concepts and languages and cultures
  • discussing the effects of using either Hindi or English on how they express feelings, debate ideas or construct arguments

  VCHIU089 | Languages | Hindi | F–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Understanding | Language variation and change

• VCHIU124

  Understand that languages and associated cultures shape and are shaped by each other and change over time and contexts in ways that are creative, dynamic and responsive to both internal and external influences

  Elaborations

  • reflecting on their own and each other’s use of Hindi, identifying influences from other languages and cultures such as terms used in everyday language as a result of the influence of social media, popular culture and technology
  • talking with older members of their families or communities about changes they have experienced in the use of Hindi across their lifetime, such as the increasing blending of English and Hindi in particular domains of language use such as entertainment, news and sports commentary and advertising
  • recognising that Hindi, like all languages, carries histories of contact with other languages and cultures, for example, by identifying and classifying words that originate in languages such as Persian सरकार; Arabic तलाक़; Turkish क़ुली; and Japanese रिक्शा
  • understanding that languages and cultures change continuously due to contact with each other and in response to new ideas, developments in technology, communication and design, considering why some types of words and expressions are most frequently borrowed, such as vocabulary associated with fashion, sport and technology
  • identifying ways in which social media and technology have brought about changes in communication in their own lives, for example, by compiling a glossary of terms routinely used in emails or text messages, such as अब (ATM), फिर मिलेंगे CU, जाना होगा (G2G), हे हे (LOL), फिर बात करते हैं (TTL)

  VCHIU124 | Languages | Hindi | 7–10 Sequence | Levels 9 and 10 | Understanding | Language variation and change